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Measurements
Perceived Organizational Support
Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison and Sowa (1986) developed the measurement of perceived organizational support (POS) in an effort to examine the organizational commitment of the employee. Eisenberger et al. wanted to measure employees’ individual dedication to their employers and the elements that influence dedication. While economic or emotional ties to an organization have been the basis of previous studies, Eisenberger et al.’s POS research emphasized an organization’s treatment of an employee and how employees perceive that treatment.
During the past 20 years, Eisenberger et al’s POS scale has been used in more than 70 studies (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002).
Work-Family Conflict
With the increase in dual-family careers during the past 25 years, Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux and Brinley (2005) reviewed 190 work-family studies and determined that work-family conflict increases stress and reduces career satisfaction.
Understanding that work-family conflict (WFC) can result in job dissatisfaction, burnout, job turnover and possibly reduction in worker productivity, Netemeyer, Boles and McMurrian (1996) developed a short, valid instrument to measure WFC. In their study, Netemeyer et al. (1996) defined WFC as, “A form of interrole conflict in which the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities” (p. 401).
Role Overload
In an attempt to differentiate between the role stressors of role overload and role conflict, Bucharach, Bamberger and Conley (1990) refined the role overload scale tested by Beehr, Walsh and Taber (1976). Beehr et al. defined role overload as, “having too much work to do in the time available” (p. 42). Bucharach et al. defined role overload as “the professional’s perception that he or she is unable to complete assigned tasks effectively due to time limitations (i.e., the conflict between time and organizational demands concerning the quantity of work to be done)” (p. 202).
Social Support
Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison and Pinneau (1980) launched a broad-based study that included 23 occupations and more than 2,000 employees to examine social support. Caplan et al. (1980) outlined two kinds of social support: “(1) Tangible help, such as medical services and financial aid, and (2) emotional support such as love, affection, sympathy, understanding, friendship, intimacy, etc. provided by another person or group” (p. 4). Caplan et al. (1980) wrote: “Generally speaking, social support seems to act as a buffer between job stress and strain: men who have high social support from others in their work environment show no effects of stress on strain” (p. 13).
Job Demands
Karasek (1979) developed the job demand-control (JDC) measure to assess the effects of job stress on the physical health of workers. The seven-question scale examines job stressors and is based on two critical aspects: job demand (workload in terms of time pressure and role conflict) and job control (employees ability to control his or her work activities).
Herzberg motivation-hygiene theory
In Herzberg et al.’s (1959) motivator-hygiene theory, job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are treated as separate entities influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The six intrinsic factors, or motivators, include achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. The 10 extrinsic, or hygiene factors, that can lead to job dissatisfaction include company policy and administration, supervision, relationship with supervisor, work conditions, salary, relationships with peers, personal life, relationships with subordinates, status, and security. Herzberg (1968) writes: “The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but, rather, no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no job dissatisfaction” (p. 56).
The Herzberg motivation-hygiene theory dismisses the traditional notion that intrinsic issues such as a salary increase, an enjoyable supervisor or acceptable company policy increases an employee’s job satisfaction. Instead, the theory contends that factors such as enjoyment in the work itself and recognition for good work influence satisfaction.
Herzberg et al.’s two-factor theory is considered the most influential in terms of studying job satisfaction and motivation (Hackman, 1980). It has been utilized to examine satisfaction among engineers and accountants (Herzberg, et al., 1959); non-academic university employees (Smerek and Peterson, 2007); elementary school teachers (Knoop, 1994); elementary school principals (Gaziel, 1986); and journalists (Shaver, 1978).
Shaver (1978) substantiated the motivational-hygiene theory with his findings that of the 235 news-editorial and advertising graduations, five of the six satisfiers were attributed to job satisfaction, including “having the opportunity to grow professionally, feeling a sense of responsibility, engaging in stimulating and challenging work, successfully coping with tasks and problems, and receiving praise for work. (p. 58). Shaver also said the hygiene factors contributed to job dissatisfaction, just as Herzberg had hypothesized, and included the hygiene “salary” as the dissatisfier mentioned most.
This study will examine several issues to determine the motivators and hygiene factors of job satisfaction among newspaper journalists. The motivators include perceived organizational support (achievement) and social support (interpersonal relations – peers), while role overload (working conditions), work-family conflict (factors in personal life) and job demands (working conditions) will be the hygiene factors.